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<lastBuildDate>Sat, 11 Oct 2008 10:50:02 GMT</lastBuildDate>
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<title>NACA&apos;s Dreams Turned into NASA Reality</title>
<link>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-87.aspx</link>
<description>&lt;P align=left&gt;Since its inception 50 years ago, NASA’s scientific and technological excellence has helped power the nation into the 21st century, shaping and improving life. As icons of human achievement, NASA’s enduring accomplishments promise another era of discovery and innovation&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Before NASA could stamp its permanent presence in history, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, or NACA, conducted the nation&apos;s aeronautical research. In response to the advancing European aeronautical programs in 1915, President Woodrow Wilson created NACA to gain back the U.S. lead. Its first center, known today as NASA’s Langley Research Center in Hampton, Va., was the first government facility to coordinate aeronautical research in the civil and military sectors.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;NACA&apos;s peace-oriented operations and significant contributions to aeronautics, throughout its 43-year history, led Congress to organize a national program in space science formed around NACA.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;On April 2, 1958, the bill for establishing a National Aeronautics and Space Agency was submitted. It reinforced the belief that space should only be used for peaceful purposes and stated that NACA would be absorbed into the new agency with new development and flight operations responsibilities.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;On July 29, President Eisenhower signed into law the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, establishing a broad charter for civilian aeronautical and space research. Two months later, on Oct. 1, the first NASA personnel reported to work.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;After receiving control of the Army&apos;s Missile Firing Laboratory in 1960, NASA changed the name to the Launch Operations Directorate and formed NASA&apos;s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;When the space competition rose with the Soviet Union, President John F. Kennedy proposed a lunar landing initiative to Congress that required a new launch facility capable of launching larger spacecraft.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;In 1962, NASA broke away from the Launch Operations Directorate in Huntsville and designated Merritt Island Launch Area an independent field installation in Cape Canaveral, Fla., which became Kennedy Space Center in 1963. &lt;!-- Credits starts --&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;DIV class=space_div align=left&gt; &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DIV class=space_div align=left&gt; &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;SPAN class=credits&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Kate Frakes&lt;BR&gt;NASA&apos;s John F. Kennedy Space Center&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;!-- Credits ends --&gt;&lt;!-- Body ends --&gt;&lt;/P&gt;</description>
<pubDate>Sat, 11 Oct 2008 10:50:02 GMT</pubDate>
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<dc:creator>kheduc</dc:creator>
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<title>Here is NASA</title>
<link>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-86.aspx</link>
<description>&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;A href=&quot;http://www.ParsehMania.com&quot;&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000099 size=6&gt;www.Parseh&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;M&lt;/FONT&gt;ania.com&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;IMG title=&quot;National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics&quot; style=&quot;WIDTH: 430px; HEIGHT: 260px&quot; height=170 alt=&quot;National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics&quot; src=&quot;http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/images/content/279684main_naca-s.jpg&quot; width=226 align=bottom border=0&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;اينجا ناسا است&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;۷ عكس از گذشته و الان ناسا&lt;/P&gt;</description>
<pubDate>Sat, 11 Oct 2008 10:46:18 GMT</pubDate>
<comments>http://commenting.blogfa.com/?blogid=kheduc&amp;postid=86</comments>
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<title>ماجرا های شگفت آور دنیا &quot;1&quot;</title>
<link>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-85.aspx</link>
<description>سلام . بعد از چند روز مطلب ننوشتن ميخوام يك سري به نام &quot; ماجرا هاي شگفت انگيز دنيا &quot; درست كنم كه اين اوليشه . بعضي ها مربوط ميشه به علم و مسائل مربوط به اين وبلاگ ولي بعضي چيزا فكر كنم مربوط ميشه به مسائل ماورا الطبيعه !!!  . مثل همين : 
&lt;P&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;بارش ماهی :&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;باران ماهی موضوعی عجیب در بین مردم هندوراس نیست . این اتفاق هر ساله بین ماههای می و جولای در منطقه &quot;دیپارتا منتو دیورو&quot; رخ میدهد . شاهدان میگویند :این پدیده با آمدن ابر هایی در آسمان منطقه آغاز میشود و سپس رعد و برق و طوفان شدیدی روی میدهد و اران به شدت میبارد . این باران و طوفان حدود ۲ الی ۳ ساعت به طول می انجامد و وقتی تمام میشود میتوان ماهی های زنده زیادی را روی زمین پیدا کرد !!! مردم این منطقه این ماهی ها را جمع میکنند و با آنها غذا میپزند . از سال 199 نيز هر ساله در شهر &quot;يورو&quot;،&quot;جشنواره باران ماهي&quot; برگزار ميكنند و در آن غذا هايي كه با اين ماهي پخته شده عرضه ميشوند !&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;A href=&quot;http://www.ParsehMania.com&quot;&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000099 size=5&gt;WwW.&lt;STRONG&gt;P&lt;/STRONG&gt;arseh&lt;STRONG&gt;&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;M&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/STRONG&gt;ania.com&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/P&gt;</description>
<pubDate>Thu, 28 Aug 2008 08:51:17 GMT</pubDate>
<comments>http://commenting.blogfa.com/?blogid=kheduc&amp;postid=85</comments>
<dc:creator>kheduc</dc:creator>
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<title>اسپانسر</title>
<link>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-84.aspx</link>
<description>سلام :&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;چند روزه که اصلا مطلب نمیذارم . منوارم که ببخشید چون اصلا مطلبی ندارم که بذارم.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;فقط لطفا و برای حمایت از ما روی لینک زیر که متعلق به اسپانسر ما است کلیک کنید.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;این فقط یه تبلیغات نست بلکه شما میتونید با ورود به این سایت اوقات بیکاری خودتون رو پر کنید.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;لطفا کلیک کنید مطمئا باشید که پشیمان نمیشوید.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;A href=&quot;http://www.ParsehMania.com&quot;&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;arial, helvetica, sans-serif&quot; color=#000066 size=7&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;&lt;EM&gt;www.Parseh&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;M&lt;/FONT&gt;ania.com&lt;/EM&gt;&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/P&gt;</description>
<pubDate>Sat, 02 Aug 2008 08:56:42 GMT</pubDate>
<comments>http://commenting.blogfa.com/?blogid=kheduc&amp;postid=84</comments>
<dc:creator>kheduc</dc:creator>
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<item>
<title>Ензимите</title>
<link>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-83.aspx</link>
<description>&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;A href=&quot;http://www.parsehmania.com/&quot;&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000099 size=5&gt;WwW.&lt;STRONG&gt;P&lt;/STRONG&gt;arseh&lt;STRONG&gt;&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;M&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/STRONG&gt;ania.com&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Ензимите са молекули които катализират биохимични процеси в клетката.Типичните ензими представляват белтъци или белтъчни комплекси, но съществуват и рибонуклеинови киселини с ензимна функция - т.нар. рибозими. Синтетични молекули наречени изкуствени ензими също показват каталитични способности&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;С помощта на ензимите, биохимичните реакции в организма могат да бъдат ускорени до 1 000 000 пъти. Принципът на действие включва снижаването на енергетичната бариера за протичането на дадена реакция, до стойности гарантиращи осъществяването на процеса, без това да влияе на термодинамичното равновесие. Именно тази основна функция на ензимите, както и възможностите за контрол върху ензимното действие ги прави важен компонент на всяка жива система.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Досега са открити над 4 000 ензима, а повече от 1 000 са сравнително добре описани&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; Нортроп заедно с &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Уендел Станли&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; получават &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Нобелова награда за химия&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, за пречиствананеT&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Етимология и кратка история на ензимологията&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Произходът на думата ензим идва от &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;гръцкото&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; &lt;I&gt;&quot;en zymē&quot;&lt;/I&gt;, означаващо &lt;I&gt;&quot;в мая&quot;&lt;/I&gt;. Понятието е въведено през &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;1878&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; г. от &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Вили Кюне&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, първоначално за описание на последователност от неизвестни процеси, но съвременното му значение включва обузначаването на отделни биологично активни &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;молекули&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Като синоним на ензим, в &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;българския език&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; се използва и фермент (субстанция, предизвикваща &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;ферментация&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;). Постепенно в научната литература думата фермент губи своята популярност. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Първите стъпки в познанието за същността на ензимите датират от края на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;18&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, началото на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;19 век&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, когато било забелязано, че определени животински или растителни екстракти могат да разграждат хранителни вещества, но по това време деликатния механизъм на протичащите процеси бил неизвестен&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Началото на науката за строежа и функцията на ензимите - ензимолология, поставя &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Луи Пастьор&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; с изследванията си върху алкохолната ферментация. Луи Пастьор стига до извода, че ферментацията е функция на живи системи, каквито са &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;дрождевите&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;клетки&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; и е невъзможна без тяхното участие. Виталистичната убеденост на Пастьор постулира участието на жива сила (&lt;I&gt;vis vitalis&lt;/I&gt;), която той нарича фермент.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;През &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;1897&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; г. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Едуард Бухнер&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; показва, че процесът на ферментация се дължи на определени вещества в самата клетка. Бухнер открива също, че тези вещества са относително нестабилни и могат да бъдат инактивирани при ниски температури.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Макар и по това време ензимите да не са били достъпни в чиста форма, работите върху механизма на действие позволяват в началото на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;20 век&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; да се оформят и първите хипотези за белтъчната природа и фината структура на ензимите, както и да се направят първите математически модели на ензимна кинетика.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Окончателното отхвърляне на хипотезата за живата сила и потвърждаването на белтъчната природа на ензимите става след изолирането на първите ензими - уреаза (&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;1926&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; г. от &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Джеймс Съмнър&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;), пепсин и трипсин (&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;1929&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; г. от &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Джон Нортроп&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;). През &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;1946&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; г. Съмнър, Нортроп заедно с &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Уендел Станли&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; получават &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Нобелова награда за химия&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, за пречистванането и кристализирането на ензими.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Структура&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;С изключение на малка група каталитично активни &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;РНК молекули&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, наречени &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;рибозими&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, всички познати ензими са &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;белтъци&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Като типични белтъци ензимите са изградени от линейното подреждане на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;аминокиселини&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; в &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;полипептидни вериги&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Дължината на тези вериги варира от стотина до десетки хиляди аминокиселини. Функцията на ензима зависи не само от правилното подреждане на отделните аминокиселини, но преди всичко от триизмерното нагъване на полипептидната верига в пространството.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Често се наблюдава и асоцииране на няколко отделни протеина в самостоятелна единица, функционираща като едно цяло. В този случай ензимите се наричат &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;олигомери&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; - съставени от отделни независими белтъци.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;В строежа на ензима освен белтъчна част е възможно, но не винаги участват и редица други органични или неорганични съединения означавани като &lt;I&gt;кофактори&lt;/I&gt;. Когато ензима притежва и небелтъчна част, белтъчната се означава като &lt;I&gt;апоензим&lt;/I&gt;. Съвкупността от апоензим и съответния кофактор се нарича &lt;I&gt;холоензим&lt;/I&gt; - функционално цяло.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;В рамките на апоензима се открояват няколко важни функционални участъка:&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
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&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Активният (каталитичен) участък е мястото на осъществяване на самата каталитична реакция и пряката връзка със &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;субстрата&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Често това са малко на брой аминокиселини приближени пространствено при нагъването на полипептидната верига. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
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&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Свързващ участък - разположен в близост или около активния участък и представлява областта на допълнителна връзка между субстрата и самата ензимна молекула обикновено с поддържаща функция. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
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&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Регулаторен участък - незадължителен, но може да бъдат и няколко. Това са области от белтъка, където взаимодействие с други регулаторни молекули променя конформацията на ензима и влияе върху неговото действие. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Кофакторите могат да бъдат разнообразни по природа и функции. Често са &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;ковалентно&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; свързани с белтъчната част и неразривно участват в каталитичния акт. Този тип се означава като &lt;I&gt;простетична група&lt;/I&gt;. Ролята на простетични групи изпълняват малки органични съединения (&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;тиамин-пирофосфат&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;), както и &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;метални&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;катиони&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Друг тип кофактори наречени &lt;I&gt;коензими&lt;/I&gt; не са здраво свързани с ензима, но са необходими за функционирането му. Те се асоциират в момента на самата реакция, тъй като присъстват в големи количества в средата. Коензимите са също малки органични съединения (&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;флавин&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;НАД&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;хем&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;) или неорганични метални йони.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt; &lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;Механизъм на действие&lt;/SPAN&gt; &lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Ензимите катализират превръщането на определени химични съединения, наречени субстрати на реакцията в съответни продукти. Процесът протича на няколко стъпала като се минава през създавенето на ензим-субстратен комплекс, ензим-продуктен комплекс и се стига до получаването на реакционен продукт и отделяне на ензима:&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
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&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Базова концепция в целия механизъм е т.нар. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;преходно състояние&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Преходното състояние е хипотетичен момент, в който е равно вероятностно протичането на реакцията в права посока (до получаване на продукт) или в обратна посока (до формирането на субстрат). Това не е химично съединение подобно на възможни междинни продукти, а представлява състояние на максимална енергия - напрегнатост на системата.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Ензимите могат да осъществят до няколко милиона каталитични цикъла (получаване на продукт, отделяне от продукта и свързване на нов субстрат).&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Специфичност&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Ензимите обикновено са специфични както по отношение на реакцията, която катализират, така и по отношение на веществата които влизат в нея. Специфичността се определя от съответствието във формата на субстрата и каталитичния участък на ензима, от привличането и отблъскването на повърхностните им &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;електрични заряди&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; и от съвпадението на съответни &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;хидрофобни&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; и &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;хидрофилни&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; области. Съществуват няколко типа специфичност на ензимното действие, присъщи в различна степен за отделните ензими:&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
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&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;хемоспецифичност (групова специфичност) - специфичност по отношение на определени химични групи, присъстващи в субстрата. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
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&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;региоспецифичност (реакционна специфичност) - специфичност по отношение на тип връзка, която се разкъсва или създава в течение на реакцията. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
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&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;стереоспецифичност - специфичност по отношение на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;конфигурацията&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; на молекулата, с предпочитание към един или друг &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;енантиомер&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;За обяснение на наличието на специфичност по отношение на различни възможни изходни вещества първоначално била прилагана хипотезата на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Емил Фишер&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; за т.нар. структурно съответствие тип ключ-ключалка. Тя постулирала пълно структурно съответствие между субстрата и ензима, като субстрата буквално прилепва в активния център на ензима. Хипотезата не може да обясни стабилизацията на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;преходното сътояние&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;DIV class=floatnone align=left&gt;&lt;SPAN&gt;&lt;A class=image title=&quot;Съответствие тип ключ-ключалка&quot; href=&quot;http://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0:The_lock_and_key.png&quot;&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;IMG height=155 alt=&quot;Съответствие тип ключ-ключалка&quot; src=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/bg/thumb/4/44/The_lock_and_key.png/500px-The_lock_and_key.png&quot; width=500 border=0&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Корекцията на предложения от Фишер модел, е направена от &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Даниел Кошланд&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; през &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;1958&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; г., когато Кошланд предлага модела на индуцираното структурно сходство. Според него в момента на взаимодействие ензима се нагажда &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;конформационно&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; към субстрата, за да се получи пълно съответствие.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;DIV class=floatnone align=left&gt;&lt;SPAN&gt;&lt;A class=image title=&quot;Индуцирано структурно съответствие&quot; href=&quot;http://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0:Induced_fit.png&quot;&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;IMG height=170 alt=&quot;Индуцирано структурно съответствие&quot; src=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/bg/thumb/3/3e/Induced_fit.png/500px-Induced_fit.png&quot; width=500 border=0&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;‎&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;При особено сложни субстратни молекули, каквито могат да са например цели белтъчни молекули не е изключено и нагаждане на самия субстрат чрез конформационни промени в него самия.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;Метаболитни пътища&lt;/SPAN&gt; &lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Някои от ензимите могат да работят заедно в специфичен порядък, образуващи &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;метаболитни пътища&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; (серия от химични реакции, осъществяващи се в клетката, катализирани от ензими). В тях един ензим взима продукта от друг ензим, като начален &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;субстрт&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. След каталитичната реакция, продуктът се прехвърля на друг ензим. Крайният продукт от този метаболитен път е често &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;инхибитор&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; на един от първите ензими, което гарантира &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;необратимост на реакцията&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; и така се регулира количеството на крайния продукт, получен по този начин. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;A class=image title=&quot;Feedback inhibition.png&quot; href=&quot;http://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0:Feedback_inhibition.png&quot;&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;IMG height=370 alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/bg/thumb/2/24/Feedback_inhibition.png/250px-Feedback_inhibition.png&quot; width=250 border=0&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
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&lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot; size=2&gt;Най-общи механизми на инхибиране по тип обратна връзка: &lt;/FONT&gt;
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&lt;LI&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot; size=2&gt;1. Общ механизъм на инхибиране, където продукт P инхибира етапи (A-&gt;B). &lt;/FONT&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot; size=2&gt;2. &lt;I&gt;Последователно инхибиране&lt;/I&gt;. Крайните продукти P1 и P2 инхибират първата фаза от техния индивидуален път (C-&gt;D or C-&gt;F). Ако двата продукта са в достатъчни количества всички пътища от C са блокирани. Това води до изграждане на C, което от своя страна инхибира първата стъпка A-&gt;B. &lt;/FONT&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot; size=2&gt;3. &lt;I&gt;Ензимно наслагване&lt;/I&gt;. Всеки продукт инхибира и и първата индивидуална фаза и един от ензимите прави първата обща фаза. &lt;/FONT&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot; size=2&gt;4. &lt;I&gt;Съгласувано инхибиране&lt;/I&gt;. Всеки краен продукт инхибира първата индивидуална фаза. Заедно те инхибират първата обща стъпка. &lt;/FONT&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot; size=2&gt;5. &lt;I&gt;Натрупващо се инхибиране&lt;/I&gt;. Всеки краен продукт инхибира първата индивидуална фаза. Заедно те инхибират частично първата обща стъпка. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;&lt;/TBODY&gt;&lt;/TABLE&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Термодинамика на ензимната реакция&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;SPAN&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Подобно на всички други катализатори ензимите катализират само &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;термодинамично възможни процеси&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Това са спонтанни реакции, при които имаме негативна промяна на свободната &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;енергия на Гибс&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Ензима не влияе на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;термодинамичното равновесие&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, но помага то да бъде достигнато значително по-бързо. Възможно е спонтанната некатализирана реакция да води до формирането на различен продукт от този при ензим-катализирана реакция, но това е избор на един от възможните &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;реакционни пътища&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Пример от класическата термодинамика е взаимодействие на въглерод и водород - възможните продуктите на реакцията са множество. Но ако същата реакция се катализира от хипотетичен ензим, той ще е специализиран за формирането на единствен продукт.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Ензимите могат да обединяват силно изгоден термодинамичен процес с реакция която е термодинамично неизгодна. Сумарно процеса се нарича &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;спрегната реакция&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Често като избор за термодинамично изгоден процес се осъществява хидролизата на енергетически богато съединение (напр. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;АТФ&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;), а отделената енергия се използва за създаването на нови &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;химични връзки&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; в други молекули.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Ензимът катализира както правата, така и обратната реакция, до достигането на термодинамичното равновесие. Правата и обратна реакция не повлияват на равновесието, а само на скоростта на достигането му. Например &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;карбоанхидразата&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, катализира следните две реакции в замисимост от началната концентрация на реагентите:&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;DL&gt;
&lt;DD&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;IMG class=tex alt=&quot;\mathrm{CO_2 + H_2O
{}^\mathrm{\quad Carbonic\ anhydrase}
\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!
\overrightarrow{\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad}
H_2CO_3}&quot; src=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/c/8/c/c8c255d26e3f46da6bbacb1606142e6f.png&quot;&gt; (в &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;тъканите&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; - висока CO&lt;SUB&gt;2&lt;/SUB&gt; концентрация) &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DD&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;IMG class=tex alt=&quot;\mathrm{H_2CO_3
{}^\mathrm{\quad Carbonic\ anhydrase}
\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!
\overrightarrow{\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad}
CO_2 + H_2O}&quot; src=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/7/e/2/7e2012023ac3500d9e061834ffc2074e.png&quot;&gt; (в &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;белите дробове&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; - ниска CO&lt;SUB&gt;2&lt;/SUB&gt; концентрация) &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/DD&gt;&lt;/DL&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Съществува вероятност при физиологичните концентрации на реагиращите вещества и продуктите, общата промяна на свободната енергия на Гибс да е силно отрицателна, което от своя страна прави процеса необратим. Тогава ензима практически катализира единствено правата реакция.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Ензимна кинетика&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Ензимната кинетика си поставя за цел да изследва как ензимите се свързват с техните субстрати и ги превръщат в продукти, както и да определи скоростта на това превръщане. През &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;1913&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; г. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Леонор Михаелис&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; и &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Мауд Ментен&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; поставят основите на количествената теория на ензимната кинетика. Техните работи са доразвити от Бригс и &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Джон Холдейн&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, с представянето на нов математически апарат&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Михаелис и Ментен разглеждат ензимната реакция, като разделена на два стадия. В първият има равновесна реакция на свързване на субстрата с ензима до формиране на ензим-субстратен комплекс. Като втори стадий те поставят необратима реакция на превръщането на субстрата в продукт и освобождаването на продукта от ензима. Моделът е за едносубстратна реакция :&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;DIV style=&quot;POSITION: relative&quot; align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;IMG class=tex alt=&quot;
 E + C
  \begin{matrix}
    k_1 \\
    \longrightarrow \\
    \longleftarrow  \\
    k_{-1}
  \end{matrix}
 EC
  \begin{matrix}
    k_2 \\
    \longrightarrow\\
    \ 
  \end{matrix}
 E + \Pi
&quot; src=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/4/7/5/475d736bff980c4b1d31757dfd235a28.png&quot;&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Константите k&lt;SUB&gt;1&lt;/SUB&gt;,k&lt;SUB&gt;-1&lt;/SUB&gt; и k&lt;SUB&gt;2&lt;/SUB&gt;, посочени в уравнението са съответните скоростни константи на химичните реакции. Въз основа на това предположение са съставени няколко кинетични уравнения, за описването и практическото намиране на скоростта на ензимната реакция. Повечето ензими се подчиняват на този модел, известен като кинетиката на Михаелис-Ментен.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Кинетичното уравнение, известно като уравнение на Михаелис-Ментен, описващо скоростта на ензимната реакция (v) във всеки момент се извежда от посочения модел и графично представлява:&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;DIV style=&quot;POSITION: relative&quot; align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;IMG class=tex alt=&quot; v = k_2[E_0]\frac{[C]}{K_m + [C]} = V_{max}\frac{[C]}{K_m + [C]} &quot; src=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/b/5/9/b59b61e992d62cbbd7cd737cf38ab10a.png&quot;&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Съответните означения са коментирани в детайли по-надолу.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Скорост на реакциите, провеждани посредством ензими&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;нзимите могат да увеличат скоростта на реакциите, чрез защитаване или даване на възможност на различен път на реакцията с по-ниска активираща енергия, което прави по-лесно протичането на съответната реакция. Общата скорост на ензимно катализираната реакция зависи от много фактори като температура, рH на средата, концентрации на реагентите, присъствието на инхибитори и др.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Веществата (A и B) се нуждаят от голямо количество &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;енергия&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; (E1) за да достигнат междинното състояние A…B, което след това реагира до краен продукт (AB). Ензимът (E) образува &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;микросреда&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, в която A и B могат да реагират до междинното състояние (A…E…B) по-лесно, намалявайки необходимата енергия (E2). Като резултат се повишава вероятността за осъществяване на тази реакция и по този начин се повишава скоростта й.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;От практически съображения са въведени няколко показателя за кинетичното характеризиране на дадена реакция - максимална скорост, начална скорост, константа на Михаелис-Ментен, оборотно число и константа на специфичност.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Максималната скорост (V&lt;SUB&gt;max&lt;/SUB&gt;) се постига при пълно насищане на ензима, до отсъствието на свободни ензимни молекули. Практически се намира като постепенно се увеличава концентрацията на субстрата, докато се наблюдава постоянна скорост, наречена максимална скорост (V&lt;SUB&gt;max&lt;/SUB&gt;), на формирането на продукт. Тогава концентрацията на ензим-субстратния комплекс е числено равна на началната концентрация на ензима. При разглежданто на кинетичните уравнения при такива условия, лесно се изчислява и константата на Михаелис-Ментен (числено равна на субстратната концентрация, необходима за достигане на 1/2 от максималната скорост). Константата на Михаелис-Ментен (K&lt;SUB&gt;m&lt;/SUB&gt;) е показател за сродството на ензима към неговия субстрат в рамките на ензим-субстратния комплекс - колкото по голяма е тя, толкова по-лесно ензима се освобождава от своя субстрат.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;I&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Забележка: Константата на Михаелис-Ментен, често погрешно се интерпретира като дисоционна константа, но това е вярно само когато скоростта на превръщането на ензим-субстратния комплекс в продукт е много по-малка от скоростта на разпадането му до субстрат.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/I&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Началната скорост (V&lt;SUB&gt;0&lt;/SUB&gt;) е проблем за измерване, тъй като концентрацията на субстрат се променя в течение на реакцията. За определянето и се използват значителни концентрации на субстрат, надвишаващи тази на ензима. При това условие, промяната на концентрацията на субстрат в първите няколко секунди от реакцията е незначителна и с подходящ математичеки апарат, може да се определи началната скорост на реакцията.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Оборотното число (k&lt;SUB&gt;cat&lt;/SUB&gt;, прости реакции k&lt;SUB&gt;cat&lt;/SUB&gt;=k&lt;SUB&gt;2&lt;/SUB&gt;) е показател за ефективността на ензима. Това е просто скоростната константа на превръщането на ензим-субстратния комплекс в продукт и неговото освобождаване. Кинетичния смисъл на оборотното число е максималния брой сбстратни молекули, които могат да се преработят от един активен център за една секунда.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Последният показател за характеристика на ензим е т.нар. константа на специфичност - отношението между оборотното число и константата на Михаелис-Ментен. Това позволява сравнение на каталитичната ефективност на различни ензими или преработката на различни субстрати от един ензим. Кинетичния смисъл е максималния броя на субстратни молекули превърнати за единица време от един активен център при еднакви условия на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;афинитет&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; към субстрата. Има горна граница на тази константа и това е скоростта на проста &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;дифузия&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; на на ензима от субстрата в разтвор - не е възможно да се превърнат повече молекули от достъпните за контакт в &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;разтвор&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Скоростта на дифузия на ензима от субстрата е в рамките на 10&lt;SUP&gt;8&lt;/SUP&gt; до 10&lt;SUP&gt;9&lt;/SUP&gt; mol&lt;SUP&gt;-1&lt;/SUP&gt;.l. s&lt;SUP&gt;-1&lt;/SUP&gt;. Много ензими притежават константи на специфичност в този порядък и те се означават като каталитично перфектни. Примери за такъв тип каталитично перфектни ензими са &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;ацетилхолинестераа&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;карбоанхидраза&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;каталаза&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;кротоназа&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;фумараза&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;b-лактамаза&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; &lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Функции&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Ензимите катализират &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;биохимични реакции&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. С тяхна помощ се извършва синтез и разграждане на органичните вещества, редуциране, окисление, обмяна на веществата между организмите и околната среда.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; &lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;Роля на ензимите в химическите реакции&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Ензимите могат да свържат 2 или повече реакции, така че термодинамично най-вероятната реакция може да бъде използвана да доведе до термодинамично по-малко вероятна такава. Един от най-общите примери за това са ензимите, използувани за &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;дефосфорилация&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;аденозин трифосфат&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; (АТФ) да доведе до други неотнасящи се към нея реакции.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Ензими и здраве&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Ензимите са особено важни за живите организми и неправилната работа дори на един от около 2000 съществуващи в организма може да доведе до заболяване. Пример на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;болест&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; причинена от неправилно функциониране на ензим е фенилкетонуриа. При нея ензима &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;фениланинхидрохксилаза&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, който преработва основната аминокиселина &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;фениланин&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; в &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;тирозин&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; просто не работи. Това води до повишаване на нивата на фениланин с пследици от увреждане на мозъка и забавяне на умствената дейност. Ензимите в човешкото тяло също се влияят от инхибитори. &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Аспиринът&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, например инхибира ензимите, преработващи простагландините (веществата даващи сигнал на имунната система за инфекция или възпаление) и по този начин потиска &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;болката&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; и &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;възпалението&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Ензимите се използват и в ежедневните продукти като миещи препарати, където ускоряват химическите реакции при прането (например разлагане на петна от кръв или други органични вещества).&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Храносмилателни и матаболитни ензими&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;SPAN class=mw-headline&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Храненето&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; при животните е основано на храносмилателни ензими като &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;α-амилаза&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;, &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;трипсин&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Основната роля е за храносмилането на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;храната&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; и осигуряването на хранителните вещества за цялото тяло. Друг клас ензими се наричат метаболитни ензими. Тяхната роля е да катализират химическите реакции в цялото тяло, включително и приемането на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;кислород&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Повечето от нашите клетки (с изключение на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;еритроцитите&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;) биха страдали от недостиг на кислород даже и при негов излишък без действието на ензимита &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;цитохром оксидаза&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;. Ензимите също играят роля при контракцията на &lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;мускулите&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;FONT face=&quot;Tahoma, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt; и отпускането им. Факт е че без съществуването на тези два класа ензими животът нямаше да съществува.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;/SPAN&gt;</description>
<pubDate>Wed, 04 Jun 2008 09:35:17 GMT</pubDate>
<comments>http://commenting.blogfa.com/?blogid=kheduc&amp;postid=83</comments>
<dc:creator>kheduc</dc:creator>
<guid>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-83.aspx</guid>
</item>
<item>
<title>فضاپیمای فونیکس </title>
<link>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-82.aspx</link>
<description>&lt;P align=center&gt; &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;A href=&quot;http://www.parsehmania.com/&quot;&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000099 size=5&gt;WwW.&lt;STRONG&gt;P&lt;/STRONG&gt;arseh&lt;STRONG&gt;&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;M&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/STRONG&gt;ania.com&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;IMG src=&quot;http://gigaimage.com/images/whlg5aagl0bh88z73gvi.jpg&quot;&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;تصاویری از فضاپیمای فونیکس که فرود موفقی رو روی سطح مریخ داشته.&lt;/P&gt;</description>
<pubDate>Sat, 31 May 2008 10:02:17 GMT</pubDate>
<comments>http://commenting.blogfa.com/?blogid=kheduc&amp;postid=82</comments>
<dc:creator>kheduc</dc:creator>
<guid>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-82.aspx</guid>
</item>
<item>
<title>جوانترین پرفسور دنیا</title>
<link>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-81.aspx</link>
<description>&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;A href=&quot;http://www.parsehmania.com/&quot;&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000099 size=5&gt;WwW.&lt;STRONG&gt;P&lt;/STRONG&gt;arseh&lt;STRONG&gt;&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;M&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/STRONG&gt;ania.com&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;IMG style=&quot;WIDTH: 321px; HEIGHT: 227px&quot; height=159 src=&quot;http://irchem.persiangig.com/image/Alieh-saboor.jpg&quot; width=213&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;حالا میرسیم به جوانترین پرفسور دنیا &quot; عالیه صبور&quot; که یک دختر ۱۹ ساله ایرانی مقیم آمریکا هست .عالیه در سن ۱۰&quot;ماهگی&quot; خواندن و نوشتن را یاد میگرد و در سن ۱۰ سالگی دانشگاه را تمام میکند . او همچنین در سن ۱۴ سالگی مدرک دکترا را گرفت و جدیدا مدرک پروفسری را گرفت. او رکورد ۳۰۰ ساله سن دریافت این مدرک را شکست . قبل از او کولین مک لاوین شاگرد نیوتون جوانترین پروفسور جهان بود که نامش در کتاب رکورد های جهانی گینس ثبت شده بود . عالیه قرار است استاد دانشگاه &quot; کونکوک &quot; کره جنوبی بشود . او علاوه بر ریاضیدان بودن یک موزیسین ماهر نیز هست.&lt;/P&gt;</description>
<pubDate>Wed, 21 May 2008 06:58:17 GMT</pubDate>
<comments>http://commenting.blogfa.com/?blogid=kheduc&amp;postid=81</comments>
<dc:creator>kheduc</dc:creator>
<guid>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-81.aspx</guid>
</item>
<item>
<title>مسابقه 4</title>
<link>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-80.aspx</link>
<description>&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;A href=&quot;http://www.parsehmania.com/&quot;&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000099 size=5&gt;WwW.&lt;STRONG&gt;P&lt;/STRONG&gt;arseh&lt;STRONG&gt;&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;M&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/STRONG&gt;ania.com&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;مسابقه شماره ۴ :&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;چرا وقتي يد را كه غير قطبي است را در آب مي ريزيم حل نمي شود. ولي وقتيKI در آب مي ريزيم و بعد يد را مي ريزيم ، يد در آب حل مي شود.KI در آب چه كاري را انجام مي دهد.&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;شما میتوانید جواب این سوال را از دو طریق برای ما ارسال نمایید :&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;۱ ـ جواب این سوال را به ایمیل ما : &lt;A href=&quot;mailto:Soheyl_kashani@yahoo.com&quot;&gt;Soheyl_kashani@yahoo.com&lt;/A&gt; ارسال نمایید و یا :&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;۲ـ جواب این سوال را در قسمت نظرات خصوصی این وبلاگ برای ما ارسال نمایید .&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;و اما جوایز :&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;به کسانی که جواب درست به این سوال بدهند به نفرات اول تا سوم :&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;۱ـ ۵ ساعت اینترنت شبانه روزی&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;۲ـ ۵ساعت اینترنت شبانه&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;۳ـ کد عبور برای اتصال ارزان با خارج از کشور.&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;۴ـ ۱ دعوتنامه پرشین گیگ&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;توجه داشته باشید که حتما ایمیل خود را برای ما بگذارید.&lt;/P&gt;</description>
<pubDate>Sat, 17 May 2008 07:47:17 GMT</pubDate>
<comments>http://commenting.blogfa.com/?blogid=kheduc&amp;postid=80</comments>
<dc:creator>kheduc</dc:creator>
<guid>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-80.aspx</guid>
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<item>
<title>About the Cambridge University</title>
<link>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-79.aspx</link>
<description>&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;A href=&quot;http://www.parsehmania.com/&quot;&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000099 size=5&gt;WwW.&lt;STRONG&gt;P&lt;/STRONG&gt;arseh&lt;STRONG&gt;&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;M&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/STRONG&gt;ania.com&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;IMG style=&quot;WIDTH: 377px; HEIGHT: 49px&quot; height=49 alt=&quot;University of Cambridge&quot; src=&quot;http://www.cam.ac.uk/images/identifier1.gif&quot; width=320&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;H1 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;How the University works&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H1&gt;
&lt;H2 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Introduction&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;The University of Cambridge is a confederation of Colleges, Faculties and other institutions.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;The University functions with a relatively small central administration, and with central bodies consisting of, and mainly elected by, the current academic personnel of the Faculties and Colleges.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;A large part of Cambridge&apos;s day-to-day administration is carried out by teaching staff on behalf of their colleagues, and the University&apos;s governmental structure is democratic.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;As Cambridge approaches its 800th anniversary, it is not surprising that the way in which the University governs itself can appear complex. These pages outline the principal elements in these procedures in simple terms and define some Cambridge terminology. They are not an authoritative statement of the University&apos;s Statutes, nor of the legal position in relation to the rights and duties of any body or bodies.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;H1 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Introduction&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H1&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;In 2009, the University will be celebrating its 800th anniversary.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;As one of the world&apos;s leading universities, Cambridge has a reputation that reflects the intellectual achievement of its students and the outstanding work of the academic community of the University and the Colleges. Over the last 800 years, its contribution to the world has ranged from the discovery of the mechanism of blood circulation to the structure of DNA, from the great philosophers of the early 15th Century, to the groundbreaking work of its many Nobel Prize winners.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;The University will be marking its 800th anniversary with an exciting and varied programme of events. We will be celebrating the ideas, people and achievements from the University that continue to transform and benefit the world and to look forward to future developments. It is also a chance to thank students, staff, alumni and the local community for the contributions they make to the university.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;H2 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;2009 Fund&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;University, college or student groups are invited to apply for grant money from the Cambridge 2009 Fund to support one-off events in 2009 marking the 800th anniversary and promoting or celebrating the contribution of Collegiate Cambridge to society. Guidance for applicants is available and you can download the application form from this site.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;H1 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;The University&apos;s Mission and Core Values&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H1&gt;
&lt;H2 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Mission&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;The mission of the University of Cambridge is to contribute to society through the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;H2 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Core values&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;The University&apos;s core values are as follows:&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;freedom of thought and expression &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;freedom from discrimination &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;H3 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Education&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H3&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;the encouragement of a questioning spirit &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;an extensive range of academic subjects in all major subject groups &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;quality and depth of provision across all subjects &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;the close inter-relationship between teaching, scholarship, and research &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;strong support for individual researchers as well as research groups &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;residence in Cambridge as central to most courses &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;education which enhances the ability of students to learn throughout life &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;H3 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;The University&apos;s relationship with society&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H3&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;the widest possible student access to the University &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;the contribution which the University can make to society through the pursuit, dissemination, and application of knowledge &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;the place of the University within the broader academic and local community &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;opportunities for innovative partnerships with business, charitable foundations, and healthcare &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;concern for sustainability and the relationship with the environment &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;H3 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;The Collegiate University&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H3&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;the relationship between the University and the Colleges as fundamental to the nature of Cambridge &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;the interdisciplinary nature of the Colleges as a major stimulus to teaching and learning &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;the enhanced quality of experience for students and staff through College membership &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;H3 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;University staff&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H3&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;recognition and reward of the University&apos;s staff as its greatest asset &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;the encouragement of career development for all staff &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;H3 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Other activities&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H3&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;the opportunities for broadening the experience of students and staff through participation in sport, music, drama, the visual arts, and other cultural activities &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;H1 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Introduction&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H1&gt;&lt;!-- content start --&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;IMG class=tightright title=&quot;The Cambridge Oak: University Botanic Garden&quot; height=266 alt=&quot;The Cambridge oak: University Botanic Garden&quot; src=&quot;http://www.cam.ac.uk/cambuniv/libmuseums/cambridgeoak.jpg&quot; width=200&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;The University of Cambridge is rich in history - its famous Colleges and University buildings attract visitors from all over the world. But the University&apos;s libraries, museums and collections also hold many treasures which give an exciting insight into some of the scholarly activities, both past and present, of the University&apos;s academics and students.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;IMG class=left title=&quot;Boats under Saltash Bridge (Royal Albert Bridge), Alfred Wallis: Kettle&apos;s Yard, University of Cambridge&quot; height=186 alt=&quot;Boats under Saltash Bridge (Royal Albert Bridge), Alfred Wallis: Kettle&apos;s Yard, University of Cambridge&quot; src=&quot;http://www.cam.ac.uk/cambuniv/libmuseums/obj_06_aw25k.jpg&quot; width=200&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;Information here will give you a taste of what is on offer - from the enormous collection of books at the University Library, one of the six legal deposit libraries in the British Isles; to the local geological finds at the Sedgwick Museum and archaeological finds at the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology; to the fine paintings and sculpture at the Fitzwilliam and contemporary art at Kettle&apos;s Yard, wonderful collections of plants at the Botanic Garden; and specimens brought back by Darwin from his voyages on display at the Museum of Zoology; Darwin&apos;s rock collection is displayed at the Sedgwick Museum, which also has fine collections of fossils, rocks and minerals.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;Special events go on throughout the year - talks, concerts, exhibitions, family workshops, courses for adults and displays - and also the education programmes for schools. Members of the public are given a warm welcome. Teachers interested in INSET programmes and special projects for schools should contact the education officer at either the Fitzwilliam Museum, Kettle&apos;s Yard or the Botanic Garden for details.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;H1 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Computing Resources&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H1&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;The University aims to provide an advanced IT infrastructure suitable for the support of the teaching and research activities of Departments and Colleges. The Information Technology Syndicate, which contains strong College representation, is responsible for strategy, for establishing standards of use throughout the University, and for advising on all matters relating to Information Technology.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;Computing resources for teaching, and for research that is not IT-resource intensive, are provided at three levels: general facilities are provided by the Colleges, facilities which need to be provided on a University-wide basis are the responsibility of the Computing Service, and Departments provide subject-specific facilities. The University data network (CUDN) is central to this strategy. It is connected with high-speed links to SuperJANET and the Internet in order to provide the necessary connectivity to the world at large.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;H2 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Services&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The University Computing Service. Hardware support can do repairs and you can obtain site-licenced free software (such as anitvirus software) and buy software from Software Sales. &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The University Library &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Departments and colleges, listed in A-Z list or with telephone numbers and addresses &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The IT Syndicate supervises IT provision and use in the University and Colleges &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The Language Centre provides access to facilities and expertise in language learning for use throughout the University &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Centre for Applied Research in Educational Technologies (CARET) &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Cambridge Computer Emergency Response Team &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;H2 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Facilities&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Electronic mail at Cambridge including the Hermes Webmail Service. &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Email directories of staff and students &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;World access email directory &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;University lookup service (Raven-controlled access) &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The site-wide search facility, and information for local users about how to administer its use &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The PWF, public workstations for students and staff, providing facilities for personal web pages and remotely accessible filespace. &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Raven - the University&apos;s authentication service &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;CamTools - the University&apos;s collaborative working environment &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Super computing &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Cambridge eScience Centre &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;PWF Condor &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The High Performance Computing Service, available only to registered local users&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;University-wide newsgroups - web interface for easy access &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Support is available for Windows, Macs, Unix and Networks. &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The Computing Service Help Desk offers immediate assistance with Computing Service facilities, and there are various other IT Help Desks within the University for some specialist systems. &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The Computing Service offers IT Training Courses, nearly all free of charge to staff and students of the University &lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Wireless access: there are many hot-spots in the University. The Computing Service run lapwing, which supports an increasing number of hot-spots. Some colleges and departments run their own services. \&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;H1 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;University Archives&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H1&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;The University Archives is responsible for the selection and preservation of the internal administrative records of the University of Cambridge, dating from 1266 to the present, and for making them available for administrative and research purposes. The archives are as diverse in their contents as the activities - self governance, teaching and research, property management, administration of justice, external relations - the University has pursued down the centuries. They include charters, statutes and title deeds, records of its legislative and executive bodies, central administration, Syndicates and committees, departments and faculties, students and law courts. Some recent records are accessible only to those with written authority from the appropriate officers, but most are freely available in the University Library Department of MSS \and University Archives. An on-line catalogue is available at &lt;A href=&quot;http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/&quot;&gt;http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;IMG style=&quot;WIDTH: 369px; HEIGHT: 248px&quot; height=208 alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;http://www.cam.ac.uk/images/feb08.jpg&quot; width=320&gt;&lt;/P&gt;</description>
<pubDate>Thu, 27 Mar 2008 08:48:17 GMT</pubDate>
<comments>http://commenting.blogfa.com/?blogid=kheduc&amp;postid=79</comments>
<dc:creator>kheduc</dc:creator>
<guid>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-79.aspx</guid>
</item>
<item>
<title>About Axford University</title>
<link>http://kheduc.blogfa.com/post-78.aspx</link>
<description>&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;A href=&quot;http://www.parsehmania.com/&quot;&gt;&lt;FONT color=#000099 size=5&gt;WwW.&lt;STRONG&gt;P&lt;/STRONG&gt;arseh&lt;STRONG&gt;&lt;FONT color=#ff0000&gt;M&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/STRONG&gt;ania.com&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=center&gt;&lt;IMG height=283 alt=&quot;Image:Oxford University Logo.jpg&quot; src=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d6/Oxford_University_Logo.jpg&quot; width=283 border=0&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;H1 align=center&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Welcome from the Chancellor&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H1&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;Welcome to the University of Oxford. People from all walks of life and all parts of the world have been visiting us for nine centuries and we are delighted that via this website you are joining that long tradition. Oxford was the first University in the English-speaking world. Our aim is to remain at the forefront of centres of learning, teaching and research. &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;Oxford’s remarkable global appeal continues to grow. More than a hundred and thirty nationalities are represented among a student population of over eighteen thousand. Almost a quarter comes from outside the United Kingdom.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;But it is not just longevity and global reach that mark Oxford out and give the University its special character. There is also our distinctive college and tutorial system which underpins a culture of close academic supervision and careful personal support for our outstanding students. Our colleges and halls of which there are more than forty also help to foster the intense interdisciplinary approach that inspires much of the outstanding research achievement of the University and makes Oxford a leader in so many fields. It is an approach especially suited to confronting many of the hugely complex challenges that face us all. That is why we believe that the greater we can make Oxford, the greater its contribution to the well-being of the world you and I share&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt; Oxford People&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;With almost 20,000 students, 8,500 University staff, 3,000 College employees, and &lt;SPAN&gt;180,000 alumni,&lt;/SPAN&gt; people are what make Oxford an internationally-renowned university. &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;H1 align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;Key University Officers&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H1&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Chancellor:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;The Rt Hon Lord Patten of Barnes, CH &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Vice-Chancellor:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Dr John Hood &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Pro-Vice-Chancellor (Education):&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/STRONG&gt;Professor Elizabeth Fallaize&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Pro-Vice-Chancellor&lt;/STRONG&gt; &lt;STRONG&gt;(Development and External Affairs):&lt;/STRONG&gt; &lt;BR&gt;Dr Jon Dellandrea, CM&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Pro-Vice-Chancellor (Personnel and Equal Opportunities):&lt;/STRONG&gt; &lt;BR&gt;Dame Fiona Caldicott, FRCPsych, FRCP, FRCPI, FRCGP, FMedSci&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Pro-Vice-Chancellor (Planning and Resources):&lt;/STRONG&gt; &lt;BR&gt;Professor Anthony Monaco, FMedSci&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Pro-Vice-Chancellor&lt;/STRONG&gt; &lt;STRONG&gt;(Research, Academic Services and University Collections):&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/STRONG&gt;Professor Ewan McKendrick &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Pro-Vice-Chancellors:&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/STRONG&gt;Professor Roger Ainsworth, FRAeS, Master of St Catherine&apos;s College&lt;BR&gt;Sir Alan Budd, Provost of The Queen&apos;s College&lt;BR&gt;Professor Dame Averil Cameron, CBE, FBA, FSA, Warden of Keble College&lt;BR&gt;Mr Andrew Dilnot, CBE, Principal of St Hugh&apos;s College&lt;BR&gt;Professor Dame Jessica Rawson, DBE, CBE, FBA, Warden of Merton College&lt;BR&gt;Sir Michael Scholar, KCB, President of St John&apos;s College&lt;BR&gt;Professor Paul Slack, FBA, Principal of Linacre College&lt;BR&gt;Mr Richard Smethurst, Provost of Worcester College&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Registrar of the University:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Dr Julie Maxton &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Academic Registrar and Secretary of Faculties:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Michael Sibly &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Heads of Academic Divisions:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;&lt;EM&gt;Humanities:&lt;/EM&gt; Professor Sally Shuttleworth&lt;BR&gt;&lt;EM&gt;Mathematical, Physical and Life Sciences:&lt;/EM&gt; Professor Alex Halliday, FRS&lt;BR&gt;&lt;EM&gt;Medical Sciences:&lt;/EM&gt; Dr Ken Fleming, FRCPath&lt;BR&gt;&lt;EM&gt;Social Sciences:&lt;/EM&gt; Dr Michael Spence &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/P&gt;&lt;!-- em&gt;Director of the Department for Continuing Education:&lt;/i&gt; Dr Geoffrey Thomas --&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Proctors:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Dr James Forder, Professor Marcus Banks &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Assessor:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Dr Paul Coones &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Public Orator:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Professor Richard Jenkyns &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Bodley&apos;s Librarian and Director of University Library Services:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Dr Sarah Thomas &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Director of the Ashmolean Museum:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Dr Christopher Brown &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Director of the Museum of the History of Science:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Dr Jim Bennett &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Director of the Pitt Rivers Museum:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Dr Michael O&apos;Hanlon &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P align=left&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;Director of the University Museum of Natural History:&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;BR&gt;Professor Jim Kennedy &lt;/P&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;
&lt;H1&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;Famous Oxonians&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H1&gt;
&lt;DIV id=intro&gt;
&lt;P&gt;Throughout its history, Oxford has produced gifted men and women in every sphere of human endeavour who have studied or taught at the University.&lt;/P&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DIV id=body&gt;
&lt;P&gt;Among these are 25 British Prime Ministers, at least 25 international leaders, 48 Nobel Prize winners, six current holders of the Order of Merit, six kings, 12 saints and 20 Archbishops of Canterbury, and at least nine Olympic medal winners.&lt;/P&gt;
&lt;P&gt;Currently, 107 Oxonians are Members of the UK&apos;s House of Commons and more than 140 sit in the House of Lords. 20 members of the Labour government&apos;s front bench team, 12 members of David Cameron&apos;s Shadow Cabinet; and 6 members of the Liberal Democrat Front Bench team are Oxford graduates. In addition, at least five members of the US House of Representatives and four members of the Senate were educated at Oxford. &lt;/P&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser id=a20th_century&gt;
&lt;H2&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;20th Century&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;King Abdullah of Jordan 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Grantley Adams, Premier of Barbados, 1954-1958; Prime Minister of the West Indies, 1958-1962 
&lt;LI&gt;J M G (Tom) Adams, Prime Minister of Barbados 1976-85 
&lt;LI&gt;Diran Adebayo, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Samira Ahmed, journalist and presenter 
&lt;LI&gt;Monica Ali, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Tariq Ali, writer 
&lt;LI&gt;Rowan Atkinson, comedian 
&lt;LI&gt;Kingsley Amis, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Lindsay Anderson, film-maker 
&lt;LI&gt;W H Auden, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;Clement Attlee, UK Prime Minister, 1945-1951 
&lt;LI&gt;Zeinab Badawi, journalist and broadcaster 
&lt;LI&gt;Ed Balls, Member of Parliament and Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families 
&lt;LI&gt;Solomon Bandaranaike, Prime Minister of Sri Lanka, 1956-1959 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Roger Bannister, neurosurgeon and athlete 
&lt;LI&gt;Dame Josephine Barnes, first female President of the British Medical Association 
&lt;LI&gt;Marian Bell, economist 
&lt;LI&gt;Tony Benn, politician 
&lt;LI&gt;Alan Bennett, playwright 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Lennox Berkeley, composer 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Isaiah Berlin, philosopher 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir John Betjeman, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;Benazir Bhutto, former Prime Minister of Pakistan (1988-90 &amp; 1993-96) 
&lt;LI&gt;Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, former President (1970-73) and Prime Minister (1972-77) of Pakistan 
&lt;LI&gt;Henry Bonsu, journalist and broadcaster 
&lt;LI&gt;James Bowman, counter-tenor 
&lt;LI&gt;William Boyd, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Tony Blair, former UK Prime Minister (1997-2007) 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Christopher Bland, Chairman, British Telecommunications plc 
&lt;LI&gt;Baruch S Blumberg, Nobel Prize-winning scientist 
&lt;LI&gt;Edmund Blunden, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;Dr Ian Bostridge, opera singer 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Adrian Boult, conductor 
&lt;LI&gt;Lord (Melvyn) Bragg, broadcaster 
&lt;LI&gt;Justice Stephen Breyer, Associate Justice, Supreme Court of the United States, 1994- 
&lt;LI&gt;Vera Brittain, writer 
&lt;LI&gt;Peter Brook, theatre director 
&lt;LI&gt;Fiona Bruce, broadcaster 
&lt;LI&gt;Dr Kofi Abrefa Busia, Prime Minister of Ghana 1969-72 
&lt;LI&gt;Robert Byron, travel writer 
&lt;LI&gt;David Cameron, Member of Parliament and Leader of the Conservative Party 
&lt;LI&gt;Baroness Barbara Castle, politician 
&lt;LI&gt;General Wesley Clark, NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe, 1997-2000 
&lt;LI&gt;Bill Clinton, President of the United States, 1992-2000 
&lt;LI&gt;Wendy Cope, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;Richard Curtis, screenwriter 
&lt;LI&gt;Cecil Day Lewis, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;Edward de Bono, philosopher 
&lt;LI&gt;David Dimbleby, journalist and broadcaster 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir John Eccles, scientist, winner of the Nobel Prize for Physiology 1963 
&lt;LI&gt;John Edmonds, trade unionist 
&lt;LI&gt;T S Eliot, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall, chef and broadcaster 
&lt;LI&gt;Helen Fielding, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Dr Amelia Fletcher, Chief Economist, Office of Fair Trading 
&lt;LI&gt;Lord Florey, Nobel Prize-winning pathologist 
&lt;LI&gt;Emilia Fox, actress 
&lt;LI&gt;Malcolm Fraser, Prime Minister of Australia, 1975-83 
&lt;LI&gt;William Fulbright, politician, founder of the Fulbright Scholarships 
&lt;LI&gt;Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, 1966-77 &amp; 1980-84 
&lt;LI&gt;Dr Frene Ginwala, former Speaker of the South African National Assembly 
&lt;LI&gt;William Golding, Nobel Prize-winning novelist 
&lt;LI&gt;Hugh Grant, actor                    
&lt;LI&gt;Robert Graves, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;Graham Greene, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Mark Haddon, author 
&lt;LI&gt;J B S Haldane, geneticist 
&lt;LI&gt;Professor Stuart Hall, sociologist 
&lt;LI&gt;Harald V, King of Norway since 1991 
&lt;LI&gt;Bob Hawke, Prime Minister of Australia, 1983-91 
&lt;LI&gt;Professor Stephen Hawking, physicist 
&lt;LI&gt;Joseph Heller, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck, Oscar-winning film-maker 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Cyril Hinshelwood, Nobel Prize-winning chemist 
&lt;LI&gt;Dorothy Hodgkin, Nobel Prize-winning chemist 
&lt;LI&gt;Edwin Hubble, astronomer 
&lt;LI&gt;Cardinal Basil Hume, Archbishop of Westminster, 1976-99 
&lt;LI&gt;Aldous Huxley, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Armando Iannucci, writer and comedian 
&lt;LI&gt;Lord (Roy) Jenkins, former Home Secretary and Chancellor of the University 
&lt;LI&gt;Bobby Jindal, US Congressman 
&lt;LI&gt;Luke Johnson, businessman, Chairman of Channel 4 
&lt;LI&gt;Lakshman Kadirgamar, former Sri Lankan Foreign Minister 
&lt;LI&gt;Natasha Kaplinsky, television presenter 
&lt;LI&gt;Imran Khan, Pakistani politician and former international cricketer 
&lt;LI&gt;Liaquat Ali Khan, first Prime Minister of Pakistan 
&lt;LI&gt;Soweto Kinch, jazz musician, saxophonist 
&lt;LI&gt;Dame Emma Kirkby, soprano 
&lt;LI&gt;John Kufuor, President of Ghana 2001- 
&lt;LI&gt;Haruhiko Kuroda, President of the Asian Development Bank 
&lt;LI&gt;Martha Lane Fox, businesswoman, co-founder of lastminute.com 
&lt;LI&gt;Philip Larkin, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;T E Lawrence, Lawrence of Arabia 
&lt;LI&gt;Nigella Lawson, chef and broadcaster 
&lt;LI&gt;John Le Carre, author 
&lt;LI&gt;C S Lewis, writer and scholar 
&lt;LI&gt;Ken Loach, film-maker 
&lt;LI&gt;Alain Locke, philosopher and architect of the Harlem Renaissance 
&lt;LI&gt;Richard G Lugar, United States Senator 
&lt;LI&gt;Val McDermid, crime writer 
&lt;LI&gt;Neil MacGregor, Director of the British Museum 
&lt;LI&gt;Harold Macmillan, UK Prime Minister, 1957-63 
&lt;LI&gt;Norman Manley, Leader of Jamaica, 1955-62 
&lt;LI&gt;Chief Justice Mrs Suvata Vasant Manohar, Judge of the Supreme Court of India 1994-99 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Peter Medawar, scientist, winner of the Nobel Prize for Physiology 1960 
&lt;LI&gt;Ved Mehta, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Roland Michener, Governor-General of Canada 1967-74 
&lt;LI&gt;David Miliband, Member of Parliament and Foreign Secretary 
&lt;LI&gt;Dame Barbara Mills, first female Director of Public Prosecutions 
&lt;LI&gt;Dom Mintoff, Prime Minister of Malta, 1955-1958 &amp; 1971-1984 
&lt;LI&gt;Dudley Moore, actor, comedian, musician 
&lt;LI&gt;Dom Moraes, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;Dame Iris Murdoch, philosopher and author 
&lt;LI&gt;Rupert Murdoch, Director, News International Plc 
&lt;LI&gt;Artur Mutambara, Zimbabwean politician 
&lt;LI&gt;Mylo, DJ 
&lt;LI&gt;V S Naipaul, Nobel Prize-winning author 
&lt;LI&gt;Crown Prince Naruhito of Japan 
&lt;LI&gt;Dr Rehn Olli, EU Commissioner for Enlargement 
&lt;LI&gt;Rageh Omaar, journalist 
&lt;LI&gt;Viktor Orbán, Prime Minister of Hungary 1998-2002, leader of the &lt;EM&gt;Fidesz &lt;/EM&gt;political party 
&lt;LI&gt;George Osborne, Member of Parliament and Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer 
&lt;LI&gt;Michael Palin, actor and writer 
&lt;LI&gt;Lester B Pearson, Prime Minister of Canada, 1963-1968, and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize 
&lt;LI&gt;Robert Penn Warren, American poet laureate 
&lt;LI&gt;Rosamund Pike, actress 
&lt;LI&gt;Matthew Pinsent, Four times Olympic Gold Medal-winning rower 
&lt;LI&gt;Dennis Potter, playwright 
&lt;LI&gt;Philip Pullman, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Hugh Quarshie, actor 
&lt;LI&gt;Nick Robinson, journalist 
&lt;LI&gt;Hon Raymond Robinson, President of Trinidad and Tobago, 1997-2003 
&lt;LI&gt;General Sir Michael Rose, former UN Commander in Bosnia 
&lt;LI&gt;Lord (Robert) Runcie, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1980-1991 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Martin Ryle, Nobel Prize-winning physicist 
&lt;LI&gt;Dr Jonathan Sacks, Chief Rabbi 
&lt;LI&gt;Dame Cicely Saunders, founder of the modern hospice movement 
&lt;LI&gt;Dorothy L Sayers, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Ernst Schumacher, economist 
&lt;LI&gt;Pixley Seme, founder of the African National Congress 
&lt;LI&gt;Vikram Seth, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Dr Manmohan Singh, Prime Minister of India, 2004- 
&lt;LI&gt;Jacqui Smith, Member of Parliament and Home Secretary 
&lt;LI&gt;Laura Solon, comedian 
&lt;LI&gt;Cornelia Sorabji, India’s first female lawyer 
&lt;LI&gt;John Spratt, United States Congressman 
&lt;LI&gt;Rick Stein, chef and broadcaster 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Nicholas Stern, economist, author of the Stern Review into the Economics of Climate Change, 2006 
&lt;LI&gt;Aung San Suu Kyi, leader, Burmese National League for Democracy and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize 
&lt;LI&gt;A J P Taylor, historian 
&lt;LI&gt;Margaret Thatcher, UK Prime Minister, 1979-90 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Wilfred Thesiger, explorer and anthropologist 
&lt;LI&gt;Mark Thompson, Director-General of the BBC 
&lt;LI&gt;Lester Thurow, economist 
&lt;LI&gt;J R R Tolkien, author and academic 
&lt;LI&gt;Margaret Turner-Warwick, first woman President of the Royal College of Physicians 
&lt;LI&gt;Revd Chad Varah, founder of the Samaritans 
&lt;LI&gt;David Vitter, United States Congressman 
&lt;LI&gt;Baroness (Mary) Warnock, philosopher 
&lt;LI&gt;Evelyn Waugh, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Andrew Wiles, mathematician 
&lt;LI&gt;Dr Eric Williams, historian and politician, Chief Minister of Trinidad and Tobago 1956-1959, Premier 1959-1962, Prime Minister 1962-1981 
&lt;LI&gt;Ivy Williams, first female barrister in the UK 
&lt;LI&gt;Dr Rowan Williams, Archbishop of Canterbury since 2002 
&lt;LI&gt;Baroness Shirley Williams, politician 
&lt;LI&gt;Dr Heather Wilson, United States Congresswoman 
&lt;LI&gt;Michael Winterbottom, film-maker 
&lt;LI&gt;Jeanette Winterson, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Qian Zhongsu, Chinese academic and writer &lt;BR&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DIV class=clear&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser id=a19th_century&gt;
&lt;H2&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;19th Century&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;Matthew Arnold, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;H H Asquith, British Prime Minister 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Thomas Beecham, conductor and composer 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Max Beerbohm, author and cartoonist 
&lt;LI&gt;Gertrude Bell, explorer and archaeologist 
&lt;LI&gt;Hilaire Belloc, author 
&lt;LI&gt;William Beveridge, social reformer and economist 
&lt;LI&gt;John Buchan, author 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Richard Burton, explorer 
&lt;LI&gt;Edward Burne-Jones, artist 
&lt;LI&gt;Lewis Carroll (Charles Dodgson), author and academic 
&lt;LI&gt;Thomas de Quincey, author 
&lt;LI&gt;C B Fry, cricketer 
&lt;LI&gt;William Ewart Gladstone, British Prime Minister 
&lt;LI&gt;Eglantyne Jebb, founder of the Save the Children Fund 
&lt;LI&gt;John Keble, theologian 
&lt;LI&gt;Gerard Manley Hopkins, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;William Morris, artist 
&lt;LI&gt;Cardinal John Henry Newman, theologian 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Robert Peel, British Prime Minister 
&lt;LI&gt;Edward Pusey, theologian 
&lt;LI&gt;Eleanor Rathbone, politician and social reformer 
&lt;LI&gt;Cecil Rhodes, colonial pioneer, founder of the Rhodes Scholarships 
&lt;LI&gt;John Ruskin, author, artist and social reformer 
&lt;LI&gt;Percy Bysshe Shelley, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;Frederick Soddy, Nobel Prize-winning chemist 
&lt;LI&gt;Arnold Toynbee, social philosopher and economist 
&lt;LI&gt;Oscar Wilde, playwright&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DIV class=clear&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser id=a17th_18th_centuries&gt;
&lt;H2&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;17th &amp; 18th Centuries&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;William Henry Drayton, American revolutionary 
&lt;LI&gt;John Ford, playwright 
&lt;LI&gt;Edward Gibbon, historian 
&lt;LI&gt;Edmund Halley, astronomer 
&lt;LI&gt;William Harvey, scientist who discovered the circulation of the blood 
&lt;LI&gt;Thomas Hobbes, philosopher 
&lt;LI&gt;Robert Hooke, scientist 
&lt;LI&gt;Dr Samuel Johnson, lexicographer 
&lt;LI&gt;John Locke, philosopher 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Richard Lovelace, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;James Oglethorpe, founder of Georgia 
&lt;LI&gt;William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania 
&lt;LI&gt;Adam Smith, political economist 
&lt;LI&gt;James Smithson, scientist, founder of the Smithsonian Institution 
&lt;LI&gt;Robert Southey, poet    
&lt;LI&gt;Jonathan Swift, author and satirist 
&lt;LI&gt;Jethro Tull, agriculturalist and inventor 
&lt;LI&gt;John Wesley, founder of Methodism 
&lt;LI&gt;John Wilmot, second Earl of Rochester, poet and courtier 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Christopher Wren, architect&lt;BR&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DIV class=clear&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser id=a15th_16th_centuries&gt;
&lt;H2&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;15th &amp; 16th Centuries&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;Cardinal William Allen 
&lt;LI&gt;John Donne, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;Erasmus, scholar 
&lt;LI&gt;Jerome of Prague, Czech religious reformer 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Thomas More, Lord Chancellor and martyr 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Walter Raleigh, explorer 
&lt;LI&gt;Sir Philip Sidney, poet 
&lt;LI&gt;William Tyndale, translator of the Bible 
&lt;LI&gt;Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, Lord Chancellor and churchman, founder of Christ Church&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DIV class=clear&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser id=a13th_14th_centuries&gt;
&lt;H2&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;13th &amp; 14th Centuries&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;Roger Bacon, scholar 
&lt;LI&gt;Thomas Bradwardine, Archbishop of Canterbury 
&lt;LI&gt;Simon Bredon, mathematician 
&lt;LI&gt;William of Ockham, philosopher and theologian 
&lt;LI&gt;Duns Scotus, philosopher and theologian 
&lt;LI&gt;John Wyclif (Wycliffe), religious reformer  &lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;H1 align=center&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Facts and Figures&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H1&gt;
&lt;H2 class=teaser align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;Student Life&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser align=left&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;There are almost 20,000 students at Oxford, including 12,106 undergraduates and 7,380 postgraduates.&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford graduates are among the most employable in the UK: our employment rate is above average at 94 per cent.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Graduates, holding both undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications, enter a wide range of occupations with nearly 80 per cent securing managerial, professional or associate professional posts.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Over 45 per cent of students completing an undergraduate degree go on to further study compared with a national average of 23 per cent.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford has the lowest drop-out rate in England: recent figures show that only 1.4 per cent of students discontinue their course, compared with the national rate of 22 per cent.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Undergraduate students have almost 80 degree courses to choose from. More than half are currently following courses that last four years or more.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;53 per cent of undergraduates are studying for degrees in humanities and social sciences, and 41 per cent in medical, mathematical, physical and life sciences. The remaining number are studying for undergraduate level diplomas and certificates in a range of subjects offered by the Department for Continuing Education.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The tutorial is at the core of undergraduate teaching and learning at Oxford. It offers students a unique learning experience in which they meet regularly with their tutor, either on a one-to-one basis or with one or two other students. Undergraduates attend, on average, one hour-long tutorial every week and undertake a considerable number of hours’ preparatory work for each tutorial, including background reading, essay-writing and problem-solving.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;At graduate level, 37 per cent of students are studying for higher degrees in the medical, mathematical physical and life sciences and 57 per cent in the humanities and social sciences. The remaining students are studying with the Department for Continuing Education for postgraduate certificates and diplomas in subjects as diverse as Architectural History, Object Technology, Mathematical Finance and Bioinformatics.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Every year more than 15,000 people take part in courses offered by the Department for Continuing Education.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;DIV class=clear align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;H2 class=teaser align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;Undergraduate Access and Admissions&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser align=left&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;The number of undergraduate applications to Oxford has more than doubled in the last 30 years, from 6,300 in 1976 to 13,639 in 2006. 
&lt;LI&gt;In recent years, Oxford has received, on average, four applications for each available place. 
&lt;LI&gt;Using one of the most rigorous and transparent admissions systems in the UK, staff at Oxford spend around 36,000 hours each year selecting students. 800 college tutors dedicate a week of their working year to this important task. 
&lt;LI&gt;Around 80 per cent of applicants from the UK and Europe are invited for an interview at Oxford. Interviews also take place in China, Hong Kong, Malaysia, India, North America and Singapore. 
&lt;LI&gt;Currently, 99.8 per cent of successful applicants go on to achieve A-level scores of AAB or better, with an A grade in the subject equivalent to that which they propose to study. The average A-level points score achieved by new entrants is 29.9. 
&lt;LI&gt;Oxford’s bursary scheme, the Oxford Opportunity Bursaries, is one of the most generous undergraduate bursary schemes in the UK. It is worth up to £10,300 for a three year course or £13,450 for a four year degree course. 
&lt;LI&gt;In its first year of operation (2006-7) almost 700 bursaries worth nearly £2 million were awarded to students. 
&lt;LI&gt;Oxford spent over 35 per cent of its additional fee income in 2006-7 on bursaries for lower income students, compared with a sector average of only 25 per cent. 
&lt;LI&gt;On average, Oxford holds at least one access activity every working day of the year. These include summer schools, school visits, student shadowing schemes, e-mentoring, aspiration days and events for teachers. 
&lt;LI&gt;More than 10,000 students visit one of Oxford’s 200 open days each year and our staff and students make over 500 visits to schools. 
&lt;LI&gt;For 2007 entry, 53.5 per cent of successful UK applicants applying directly from school came from the maintained (state) sector.&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;DIV class=clear align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;H2 class=teaser align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=3&gt;Graduate Admissions&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser align=left&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;Each year the University receives 12,000 applications for postgraduate study.&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;More graduates than undergraduates are now admitted to the University each year. &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Graduates make up 37 per cent of the total student body.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;63 per cent of graduate students at Oxford are from outside the UK.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;At graduate level, 62 per cent of students are studying for a higher degree by research, and 38 per cent are following postgraduate taught courses.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford is responding to the demands of students and employers by developing a range of new taught masters courses, many of which cut across traditional disciplinary boundaries. These include: African Studies, Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Embryology, Financial Economics, Film Aesthetics, Global Governance and Diplomacy, Medicinal Chemistry for Cancer, Modern Japanese Studies, and Nanotechnology. &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;DIV class=clear align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;H2 class=teaser align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;Oxford International&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser align=left&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;Leading academics come to Oxford from all over the world. New professors have recently joined the University from institutions such as the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Yale University, Princeton University, the University of Amsterdam, and Johns Hopkins University.&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford’s university community is truly international: 28 per cent of teaching and research staff and 43 per cent of research-only staff are from overseas. A third of students are citizens of foreign countries, including 14 per cent of full-time undergraduates and 63 per cent of full-time graduate students.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Students come to Oxford from 139 countries and territories, creating a vibrant and diverse student community. The largest groups of international students come from the USA (1,413), China and Hong Kong (699), Germany (572), Canada (349), and India (257).&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford has more than a dozen centres and institutes specialising in the study of specific countries and regions.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford is the leading centre for the study of China in Europe and has one of the top five departments in the world in Japanese Studies.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford is one of the leading centres for the study of globalisation, through the James Martin 21st Century School, the Programme on Global Economic Governance, the Department of International Development (which created the world’s first refugee studies programme), and our global health programmes, &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford’s Centre for Tropical Medicine conducts cutting edge research at its laboratories in Kenya, Vietnam and Thailand.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford boasts one of the most extensive global alumni networks in the world, with 160 branches in over 60 countries.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford University Press, publisher of the famous dictionaries and a department of the University, is the world’s largest university press, with a presence in over 50 countries.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The University has offices in New York, Tokyo and Hong Kong.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;DIV class=clear align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;H2 class=teaser align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;Oxford Colleges&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser align=left&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;The University has 39 independent and self-governing colleges, and 7 permanent private halls.&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The collegiate system is at the heart of the University’s success, giving students and academics the benefits of belonging to both a large, internationally renowned institution and to a small, interdisciplinary academic community. It brings together leading academics and students across subjects and year groups, and from different cultures and countries.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The relatively small number of students at each college allows for close and supportive personal attention to be given to the induction, academic development and welfare of individual students.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;St Catherine’s College, which takes both undergraduate and graduate students, currently has the largest number of students (699), while one of the graduate-only colleges and a number of permanent private halls have fewer than a hundred student members.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Colleges invest heavily in facilities including extensive library and IT provision, accommodation and welfare support, and sports and social facilities.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;30 colleges and all 7 halls admit students for both graduate and undergraduate degrees. Green, Linacre, Nuffield, St Antony’s, St Cross, Templeton, and Wolfson Colleges admit only graduate students, as does Kellogg College, which supports the lifelong learning work of the University for adult, part-time, and professional development students. All Souls is unique among Oxford colleges because it has no junior members: all are Fellows (except the Warden).&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The University’s oldest colleges are University College, Balliol College, and Merton College, all of which were established by the 13th century.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Harris Manchester College, which offers Oxford degree courses solely to mature students, is the University’s newest college and gained full college status in 1996.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;St Hilda’s is the only women’s college in Oxford, although from October 2008 it will accept both men and women.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;DIV class=clear align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;H2 class=teaser align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;Oxford Research&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser align=left&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;Oxford has more academic staff working in world-class research departments (rated 5 and 5* in the 2001 National Research Assessment Exercise) than any other UK university.&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;At graduate level, 62 per cent of students are studying for a higher degree by research.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford won more research income from external sponsors than any other UK university in 2006–7, earning over £248.2 million. When £98 million of grants from HEFCE are taken into consideration, Oxford’s overall annual research income exceeds £346 million, the highest research income of any UK university.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;A new £5 million-a-year funding initiative for young academics and pilot projects has been set up to encourage creativity and attract new research talent to Oxford. The John Fell OUP Research Fund, funded by Oxford University Press, will encourage new research initiatives in all subject areas, and particularly in interdisciplinary fields.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford, through Isis Innovation Limited, our wholly owned technology transfer company, pioneered the successful commercial exploitation of academic research and invention. It has created almost 60 companies since it was established in 1988, and files, on average, one patent application each week. . &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The combined value of Oxford’s spin-out companies has reached £2 billion, using quoted market capitalisations and investor valuations for unquoted companies.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;DIV class=clear align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;H2 class=teaser align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;Oxford Awards&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser align=left&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;Oxford’s academic community includes over 70 Fellows of the Royal Society and around 90 Fellows of the British Academy.&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;In 2007, nine Oxford academics were elected to the Fellowship of the British Academy. This represented almost a quarter of new Fellowships awarded in this year, and was more than from any other institution.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;In 2007, three Oxford researchers were elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society, and four to the Academy of Medical Sciences.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The successes of Oxford’s academics are recognised regularly in the award of prestigious international prizes. The Gairdner International Award for achievements in medical research was awarded in 2007 to Professor Kim Nasmyth, and a Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research was presented to Professor Sir Ed Southern in 2005.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Six University centres have received the biennial Queen’s Anniversary Prize for Higher Education: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography at Oxford University Press (2007), Clinical Trial Service Unit (2005), Refugee Studies Centre (2002), Centre for Clinical Vaccinology &amp; Tropical Medicine (2000), Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine (1996), and Isis Innovation Ltd (1994).&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford was ranked joint second in the world in the &lt;EM&gt;Times Higher Education Supplement’s&lt;/EM&gt; World University Rankings 2007.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford is repeatedly ranked in the top ten of universities worldwide in the annual tables compiled by Shanghai Jiaotong University.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;In May 2007, Oxford University topped &lt;EM&gt;The Guardian’s&lt;/EM&gt; UK rankings for the third consecutive year.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford was named Britain’s top university for the sixth year running in the &lt;EM&gt;Times Good University Guide&lt;/EM&gt; (August 2007).&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;In the &lt;EM&gt;Financial Times&lt;/EM&gt; 2007 ranking of MBA programmes, the University’s Saïd Business School was ranked in the top twenty in the world and third in the UK. This follows the School’s success in HM Treasury’s 2005 ranking of the top 50 MBA programmes in the world, in which it was rated number one in the UK.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;DIV class=clear align=left&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;H2 class=teaser align=left&gt;&lt;FONT size=2&gt;Oxford and Business&lt;/FONT&gt;&lt;/H2&gt;
&lt;DIV class=teaser align=left&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;Oxford University is a founder member of the Oxfordshire Economic Partnership, a network of public and private sector partners committed to building a world-class economy in Oxfordshire.&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Isis Innovation Limited, the University’s wholly owned technology transfer company, has created almost 60 companies since it was established in 1988. It files, on average, one patent application each week and manages over 400 patent application families and 200 licence agreements. &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The combined value of Oxford’s spin-out companies has reached £2 billion, using quoted market capitalisations and investor valuations for unquoted companies.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;Oxford University Consulting manages some 150 consulting projects at any one time and has around 450 leading academics registered to provide their expertise to external organisations.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;The collegiate University is the second largest employer in Oxfordshire. The University, the Colleges, Oxford University Press and University spin-out companies support over 18,000 jobs directly or indirectly.&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/LI&gt;&lt;/UL&gt;
&lt;UL&gt;
&lt;LI&gt;
&lt;DIV align=left&gt;In the &lt;EM&gt;Financial Times&lt;/EM&gt; 2007 ranking of MBA programme